"The turning point at which history failed to turn."
Context
Early 19th century was dominated by Napoleon Bonaparte. The French emperor managed to conquer the bulk of western Europe, except for Britain. European forces allied together, formally defeated Napoleon in 1815, and exiled him to St. Helena, where he died. Europe entered a wave of conservatism, to prevent another figure like Napoleon from disrupting the balance of power in the continent. To resist this conservative atmosphere, many revolts kicked up…
1815: The Congress of Vienna
The Congress of Vienna includes leaders and politicians from Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia, and France. Their goal: to maintain the balance of power in Europe. This involves restoring old systems of government (such as dynastic monarchies), and old religious orders (such as Catholicism).
Dec 26, 1825: Decembrist Revolt
Russia had been a slow nation to recognize Enlightenment views. Russian protesters (called the Decembrists) gather at Senate Square, where they demand a constitution. The revolt is snuffed out by Tsar Nicholas I, who returns Russia to the autocratic and conservative state it was before.
Feb 1830: Greek Independence
Greece had been under Ottoman control since the fall of Constantinople. Greek revolutionaries fight for their own autonomy against the Ottomans in the 19th century. They are assisted by Britain, France, and Russia. The revolutionaries succeed, and Greece is recognized as an independent state.
Jul 1830: July Revolution
After Napoleon, France returned to a monarchy under the Bourbons. By 1830, the king was Charles X, who weakened the power of the people. This leads to a revolt, which results in a constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe, who is nicknamed the “citizen-king.”
Jul 21, 1831: Belgian Independence
The revolt unfolds in Brussels in 1830, and is followed by the secession of southern provinces from the Netherlands. A congress is called, and the ruler King William, not wanting further war, calls European powers together and recognizes Belgium as an independent state.
1830-1831: November Uprising
Poland had been partitioned between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, but was given its own autonomy and local government by the Congress of Vienna. Poland tries to gain complete independence, but the Russian army crushes the rebellion and Tsar Nicholas I takes away Poland’s autonomy.
Feb 24, 1848: France rises again
Unsatisfied by the constitutional monarchy, the French people revolt yet again, wanting the right to work. Some months later a new constitution is drafted, and Louis-Napoleon becomes emperor Napoleon III. This marks the beginning of the 1848 revolutions.
1848: Frankfurt Assembly
Austria and Prussia debate on the idea of a unified Germany. Ultimately, the two sides fail to reach a compromise, and the assembly falls apart. The rest of Europe also disapprove, as a unified Germany would upset the European balance of power.
1848-1849: Hungarian Revolution
Revolutionary fervor sparked up when Franz Josef revoked the March Laws, which advocated for a democratic government. Political leader Lajos Kossuth and his followers demanded independence. Austria invaded Hungary to prevent this from happening. Franz Josef called for the support of Russia.
1861: Emancipation in Russia
In an effort to bring Russia on the same liberal terms as western Europe, Tsar Alexander II emancipates the Russian serfs. Though this legally ends serfdom in Russia, the problem of social stratification and poverty is not solved. Peasants turn toward nihilism.
1867: Austria-Hungary
To solve tensions between Austria and Hungary, Franz Josef, his wife Empress Elisabeth, and other leading diplomats establish the dual monarchy Austria-Hungary.
1870-1871: Franco-Prussian War
Otto von Bismarck, the crafty prime minister of Prussia, engages France in a war to unite Prussia together. He is victorious. Kaiser Wilhelm II is crowned as the first ruler of a unified Germany, and France loses Alsace-Lorraine.
1871: Paris Commune
In the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War, the Parisian working class form the Paris Commune, which includes many socialists and other left-wing figures. However, the rest of France supports the government in Versailles, and the Communards get militarily crushed.
1871: Risorgimento
Small scale revolutions erupt throughout the Italian peninsula, most of them supporting a man named Giuseppe Mazzini, who advocates for a republican government. Although these revolutions at first were ineffective, Italy would be officially unified in 1871.
Conclusion
Were the revolutions effective? At first glance, they might not seem to be. There was a lot of back and forth between conservative authorities and liberal revolutionaries. However, to say these revolutions had no effect on the political landscape of Europe would be a far understatement. France would be prone to more revolts and uprisings to come, Italy and Germany would eventually come together and serve as powerful forces in World War 1, and the relationship between Austria and Hungary would remain understandably tense.
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Cover photo from Wikipedia
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